Editorial 1 : How does hydrocarbon extraction happen?
Introduction
Over millennia, mighty geological processes in the earth’s crust heated and compressed together pieces of life-forms that had been dead for a while. Eventually, this mulch of organic matter accumulated as hydrocarbons inside rock formations.
The location
- The most common forms in which these hydrocarbons exist in subterranean rock formations are natural gas, coal, crude oil, and petroleum.
- They are usually found in underground reservoirs created when a more resistant rock type overlays a less resistant one, in effect creating a lid that causes hydrocarbons to accumulate below it.
- Such formations are important because otherwise, the hydrocarbons would float to the surface and dissipate.
- If a rock formation is highly porous, it could hold a larger quantity of hydrocarbons.
- Similarly, the more permeable a rock is, more easily the hydrocarbons will flow through it.
- The primary source of hydrocarbons in this rocky underground is called kerogen: lumps of organic matter.
- Kerogen can be deposited from three possible sources: as the remains of a lake (lacustrine), of a larger marine ecosystem, or of a terrestrial ecosystem.
- Lacustrine kerogen yields waxy oils; marine kerogen, oil and gas; and terrestrial kerogen, light oils, gas, and coal.
- The rock containing the kerogen is called the source rock.
- Geologists undertake modelling activities informed by observational data and dig smaller exploration wells to estimate the amount of hydrocarbons there, and report it to the relevant regulatory body.
- Once a particular location is determined to be a profitable source of hydrocarbons, drilling can begin.
Accessibility of hydrocarbons
- Drilling and reservoir engineers are responsible for extracting as much of the hydrocarbons as is gainful without damaging the reservoir, to which end they deploy a variety of methods.
- The first task is to create a production well, the principal hole through which the reservoir will be drained to the surface; its location is chosen to maximise the amount of drainage.
- The tunnel is also filled with drilling fluid, which reaches and swirls around the drill bit.
- The pressure at which the drilling fluid is delivered needs to be carefully controlled or it could force the hydrocarbons in the source rock to rush into the gap between the casing and the drill string (pipe + collar + bit) and erupt on the surface like a volcano of oil.
- The process of recording the rock cuttings by depth and studying their properties is called mud-logging.
The extraction
- Once the production well has been drilled, it has to be prepared to drain the hydrocarbons — a step called completing.
- Here, engineers remove the drill string out of the borehole and punch small holes into the casing.
- More often than not, the pressure inside the well is sufficiently lower than in the surrounding rock for the hydrocarbons to start flowing into the well and rise up on their own.
- And as they rise, they are forced to exit at the top via a narrower tube — which is installed to, among other things, encourage the fluids to flow in only one direction (out).
- The flow of hydrocarbons ends the completion stage and begins the production stage.
- The production profile of a well can be split into three phases: primary, secondary, and tertiary, depending on the methods required to maintain production.
- The primary phase banks on natural processes, like pressure differences between the reservoir and the well and less dense compounds floating to the top.
- Secondary interventions are concerned with inducing artificial pressure in the rock to maintain the differential (for example, by injecting water into it or diluting the hydrocarbon mix to help it flow better).
- The tertiary phase is focused on forcing the remainder into the well.
- Steam injection is a common example of such an enhanced recovery method.
- An on-site gas turbine generates electricity while its waste heat is routed to a steam generator.
- The resulting steam is pumped into the rock: its heat makes heavy-oil hydrocarbons less viscous and more willing to flow while its pressure pushes them out.
- When recovering petroleum, for example, the well may yield about 15%, 45%, and 15% of its hydrocarbon volume in three respective phases.
Conclusion
The most exhaustive way to conclude operations at a well, whether on land or offshore, is to decommission it, but this process is expensive and often commercially infeasible for the proponent. Improperly abandoned wells are a major source of methane emissions — which is a major source of pollution.
Editorial 2 : Navigating life as a consumer with disability
Context
Every year, March 15 is celebrated as World Consumer Rights Day to create awareness about the rights of consumers. One section of consumers who might remain invisible in these celebrations or even in the discourse around consumer rights is consumers with disabilities.
Persons with disabilities
- Every single day, persons with disabilities face the struggle of seeking help for the most basic human activities, and the consequent loss of dignity, independence, and privacy.
- The pervasive inaccessibility that they encounter as consumers not only undermines their right to lead an independent life but also prevents them from equally participating in society as others.
The potential change-makers
- In India, persons with disabilities account for 5-8% of the population (World Bank, 2009).
- The issue highlights two major challenges for consumers with disabilities: the inaccessibility of goods and services and the inaccessibility of customer support options.
- Businesses could be a starting point. Businesses generally don’t perceive persons with disabilities as their target consumers.
- This is evidenced by their inaccessible offerings, which are typically designed for ‘mainstream’ consumers.
- Another entity capable of making a difference is the government. The gap in sensitisation among businesses can be abridged through effective policy measures.
- For example, FSSAI in October 2023 issued an advisory to all food business operators for incorporating QR codes containing product information on all food products.
- This simple yet effective step will allow people with visual impairment to ascertain crucial product information on their own.
- While transformative, this measure is limited to one type of product. The government could consider bringing comprehensive accessibility guidelines for all goods and services.
- India can build on the lessons from the initiatives in countries such as Australia, the U.S., and Canada and integrate similar strategies into its policies.
Legal reforms
- Persons with disabilities are also empowered by laws that safeguard their rights and interests as consumers.
- The primary legislation in this regard is the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act (RPWDA), 2016, which grants a bouquet of rights including the rights to equality, accessibility, and reasonable accommodation.
- In particular, the Act includes provisions for universally designed consumer goods and accessible services.
- The Rules notified under the RPWDA also require all Information and Communications Technology (ICT) goods and services to be accessible in accordance with the BIS standards laid down by the government.
- In case of a violation of these rights, a consumer with disability can file a complaint with the Disability Commissions established under the Act. However, Disability Commissions only issue recommendatory directions. So, they often fail to provide effective redress.
- Another avenue is the Consumer Protection Act (CPA), 2019, which not only details various consumer rights but also empowers Consumer Commissions to impose penalties and award compensation against consumer complaints.
- Consumers with disabilities have successfully obtained such remedies in numerous cases brought before Consumer Commissions.
- Unlike the RPWDA, the CPA has strong enforcement and compliance mechanisms.
- However, it lacks any dedicated rights for consumers with disabilities contrary to the RPWDA, which may deter them from filing complaints with Consumer Commissions. Hence, it becomes imperative to align the CPA with the RPWDA.
Way forward
- In addition to these legal reforms, it is crucial to raise awareness about the existing rights and resources available to consumers with disabilities under the two chief legislations. While consumer awareness has been a key focus of the state, particularly with the launch of the flagship Jago Grahak Jago Campaign, consumers with disabilities have never received attention.