Editorial 1 : Powerful antidote to toxins in cobra, krait venoms developed
Context
The current process of producing antivenom is outdated, involving injecting large animals with snake venom and collecting the animals’ blood for the antibodies it produces. A group of scientists sidestepped animals and used human antibodies instead, eventually finding the potent 95Mat5
Snake bites
- Venom from snake bites leads to more than 100,000 deaths every year, with around 400,000 people left permanently disabled.
- The mortality burden is especially higher in low and middle-income countries in Africa and Asia, with India alone at a staggering average of 58,000 deaths in a year according to a 2020 report.
- However, considered a “poor man’s disease”, relatively less attention has been paid to the devastation caused by the bites.
- In some of these countries, snakebite incidence is distressingly high but inadequate access to proper healthcare prevents fast and efficient treatment, leading to disproportionately more deaths.
- Things were set to improve in 2017 when the World Health Organization (WHO) officially classified snakebite envenoming as a highest priority neglected tropical disease.
Animals in the middle
- A major issue is that the current process of producing antivenom is outdated: it involves injecting large animals like horses with snake venom and collecting the animals’ blood for the antibodies it produces against the venom.
- But the horses’ blood could contain antibodies against other microorganisms as well, even against other components of the venom that are not harmful to humans.
- So only a fraction of the antibodies in the antivenoms is useful to humans, leading to more variability and the need for larger doses.
- In addition, because these antibodies are produced in another animal, the chances of humans developing an adverse or allergic reaction to these antivenoms are also higher.
A variety of venoms
- Driven by these concerns, a group of scientists decided to sidestep animals and use human antibodies instead.
- Using a type of toxin found in many kinds of snakes, they synthetically developed a broadly applicable human antibody against the toxin.
- Venoms of snakes in India are so diverse that venoms of the same species across regions can’t be neutralised by the same antivenom,.
- Even in the same geographical location, seen in individuals of the same species, antivenom can only neutralise some venoms and not others.
Screening billions of antibodies
- The scientists focused on three-finger toxins (3FTxs) — one of the most abundant and lethal ingredients in elapid venoms.
- Elapids are a major medically relevant family of snakes that include cobras, kraits, and mambas.
- The scientists narrowed their focus on -neurotoxins, a specific class of 3FTxs that target receptors in human nerve and muscle cells.
- These toxins prevent the receptors from responding to acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter involved in carrying messages from the neurons to the muscles, leading to paralysis, an inability to breathe, and eventually death.
Closer to a universal solution
- In the current study, the scientists found one reason why their antibody worked so well against their toxins of interest: the crystal structures of their antibody 95Mat5 and 3FTx-L variants revealed that the antibody bound the toxin exactly where the toxin would have bound its target receptor in human nerve and muscle cells.
- By mimicking the receptor-toxin interaction, the antibody could whisk the toxins away from the receptors and prevent them from exerting their deadly effects.
Conclusion
The current antibody works well against a specific kind of toxin present in the venom of many dangerous snakes, but it is also a small first step towards a universal antivenom. The scientists said they are keen on discovering specific antibodies like these against toxins in other snake venoms as well, like in vipers.
Editorial 2 : On the National Clean Air Programme
Context:
When the Indian government launched the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) in 2019, it was to cut the concentration of atmospheric Particulate Matter (PM) by 20-30% by 2024, from 2017 levels. This was later revised to 40% by 2026.
NCAP and issues
- Under NCAP, cities continuously violating annual PM levels in India need to prepare and implement annual Clean Air Action Plans (CAAPs).
- To facilitate this, the Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change has allocated funds.
- Most cities proactively submitted their CAAPs yet their implementation has been inconsistent.
- On average, only 60% of the allocated funds have been used thus far, according to the Ministry, with 27% of cities spending less than 30% of their designated budgets.
- Implementation delays hinder NCAP’s success, particularly delays in approvals from the competent authorities.
- There is also a lack of standard operating procedures for the implementation process.
- Time-consuming tasks required to implement control measures and the absence of well-defined timelines create further delays.
- Yet other reasons include bureaucratic red-tape and lingering doubts regarding the effectiveness of proposed mitigation measures.
- After the recent findings over the inefficacy of outdoor smog towers, decision-makers’ hesitation is justified.
- But overcoming this also requires a systemic approach based on Emissions Inventory (EI), Air Quality (AQ) modelling, and Source Apportionment (SA).
How can scientific tools help?
- EI and SA studies are critical to identify and understand the origins of pollution.
- EIs provide insights into local pollution sources and their contributions, allowing experts to forecast future emissions based on demographic shifts and technological advancements across sectors, among other factors.
- EIs also help shape targeted pollution control strategies. They have their limitations, too, particularly in assessing the impact of transboundary pollution sources — such as when determining the effect of stubble-burning outside Delhi on the city’s air quality.
- SA studies offer a detailed analysis of contributions from various pollution sources, including those located afar.
- But SA studies can’t distinguish between the origins of pollution, like, say, emissions from diesel trucks 200 m away and 20 km away, because diesel emissions have similar chemical signatures.
- These gaps can be bridged through AQ modelling, which informs our understanding of pollution dispersion, including from distant sources.
Suggestions
- Ideally, the cities should look into EI and SA data to pinpoint air pollutants and prepare mitigation measures targeting each polluting activity.
- Based on the potential and infrastructure requirements, cities need to set proper yearly targets and fund them.
- Moreover, the NCAP’s reliance on concentration data — a measure of population exposure to harmful pollution — further complicates the situation.
- Pollution from high-emitting industries and other sources outside city limits, carried into urban areas by winds complicates urban air-quality management.
- Many existing control measures focus only on primary PM emissions, neglecting their secondary precursors.
- A shift towards comprehensive strategies addressing both primary and secondary pollutants is thus important.
- Beyond the need for data and models, swift implementation on the ground is essential.
- For this, implementation agencies should seek to reduce bureaucratic red tape by utilising shared, standardised technical evaluations.
- As NCAP funding is linked with the performance of cities (based on the annual average PM concentration reduction), prior budgeting and time management play crucial roles.
- Technical feasibility, budgeting, and time estimates need to be part of the initial plans.
Way forward
The journey towards cleaner air in India, as charted by NCAP, will be difficult but is necessary. NCAP’s success hinges on a multifaceted approach that combines rigorous scientific studies, strategic funds, and swift and effective implementation of mitigation measures.